Argumentation Theory

In this article, I will discuss the concept of argumentation, which is often used with a negative connotation in Turkish but is actually a constructive act.

Argumentation is a vital factor for communication and has existed in societies for centuries. This theory originated from foundationalism, a theory of justification or reasoning in the field of philosophy. However, at that time, argumentation was based on rhetoric and logic. Today, people argue to impose their own thoughts on others. In fact, they try to get what they want by creating pressure on the other party through fighting. This is not argumentation; it is an attempt at domination.

Communication is very important for humanity. Initially, humans began to express their thoughts through communication, which played an important role in our evolution. During communication, the speaker shares information and the listener listens to it. Here, the listener must be able to distinguish reliable information from lies and deception.

According to experts in the field, the listener should be able to filter messages and possess an epistemic (knowledge-based) vigilance mechanism. This is nothing more than adopting a cautious attitude toward the information we receive.

For example, we believe news on the internet because we trust its source. However, instead of just trusting, we develop different ways to distinguish reliable news from fake news. Argumentation is one of these ways.

Argumentation is a method of increasing reliability in communication. Here, the speaker presents a verification to reach a conclusion. However, the listener can check this verification to accept the presented conclusion. Argumentation is also a reasoning activity. When people argue, they place their thoughts into the realm of reasoning. They use reasoning to evaluate and accept the conclusion.

Communication is perfected through correct reasoning, and a correct conclusion supported by fair evidence is obtained. Thus, the speaker can persuade the listeners, and the listeners can access reliable information. In this way, communication becomes successful.

THE STRUCTURE OF ARGUMENTATION

British philosopher and logician Stephen Toulmin identified the elements that categorize arguments so they can be evaluated.

- Claim: It is nothing more than a statement. It is put forward by the speaker or listener to have the information accepted as true. If someone asks you to do something, you do not agree to do everything they ask. You ask why you should do it and ask them to prove their claims; this is where the ground comes into play.

- Ground: It is the justification behind the claim. It is the information used to persuade the listener. It is the foundation upon which an argument is built and can also contain the evidence for the reasoning. Here, information can be a persuasive element. Each individual has a unique way of thinking, and therefore, the way they accept information is also different. Some accept it without questioning, some ignore it, and some research the facts further for a better explanation. In this case, the next step, the warrant, becomes important.

- Warrant: It validates the claim by making the ground appropriate. The warrant can be a small statement or a following argument. It can be true, implicit, or unstated.

- Backing: When support is provided to an argument, this provides additional backing to the warrant.

Qualifier: Limits the scope of the claim. Words such as 'most', 'generally', 'always', and 'sometimes' are usually used. Another alternative to the qualifier is a reservation. This is a term indicating that the claim might be false.

Rebuttal: Counter-arguments can be used even in a perfectly presented argument. A rebuttal can be given in the early stages of the presentation or throughout a long discussion.

I would like to conclude my article by giving a current example of these elements of argumentation that Toulmin mentions.

Women are excellent managers - (claim) - argument.

Women can multitask and are good organizers - (ground).

Women are mostly good listeners and approach problems more sensitively. This helps the organization run smoothly - (warrant).

Women are well-educated today - (backing).

Women are the ones who build the home, so most have the ability to manage any organization or country better - (qualifier).

Women can be good managers, but if given good education and experience - (reservation).

If equal conditions are provided, women can achieve greater success - (rebuttal).