How was national sovereignty won?

My mentor Attila İlhan would insistently underline three National Pacts (Misak-ı Milli). According to İlhan, this sensitivity of Gazi Pasha was essential not only for other dimensions but also in terms of nation-building, independence, and sovereignty. The three National Pacts were complementary and integrative to one another. Moreover, they were the foundation for the transformation of the individual living in the homeland into a citizen, and of society into a nation. 

The other two National Pacts were also necessary for the success of the first. That is, the success of the territorial National Pact had to be completed and crowned by the success of the labor National Pact and the education National Pact. 

Even before the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne and the proclamation of the Republic, Mustafa Kemal Pasha spoke of the labor National Pact at the First Turkey Economic Congress held in İzmir (February 17 – March 4, 1923). The education National Pact would be implemented a year later, on March 3, 1924, with the Law on Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu). 

To understand the process, let us recall the uninterrupted wars once again: The Italo-Turkish War (1911 – 1912), the Balkan Wars (1912 – 1913), the First World War (1914 – 1918), and the War of Independence (1919 – 1923)… 

Only the War of Independence resulted in victory among these. A very important victory was won in terms of Turkish history, not only in the political sense but also in the military sense. Because thanks to the Battle of Sakarya, which lasted 22 days and 22 nights (August 23 – September 13, 1921), the retreat and territorial loss of the Turks, which began with the Siege of Vienna in 1683, ended after 238 years. 

The young Republic of Turkey, established after the War of Independence, inherited a collapsed economy, a homeland that had seen occupation, a debt-ridden treasury, and a population that was weary, exhausted, and tired of fighting, defeated on the fronts, and decimated by diseases from the Ottoman Empire. The Republic came to life at the end of such a process. 

The Atatürk Revolution, also known as the Kemalist Revolution or the Republican Revolution, is philosophically an enlightenment revolution. As İlhan Selçuk frequently emphasized in his writings, the goal of enlightenment was "the independence of science from religion and reason from faith," or in Suat Sinanoğlu's definition, "the unlimited freedom of the mind" (Turkish Humanism, Turkish Historical Society Publications, Ankara, 1988). 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SIVAS CONGRESS 

Mustafa Kemal Pasha began the struggle by establishing a national organization to save the homeland from occupation and win independence. This organization is the Association for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia, which was organized under a single roof at the Sivas Congress. This association united all elements of the National Forces (Kuvayı Milliye), the Societies for the Rejection of Annexation, anti-occupation groups, nationalist structures, and resistance forces—including the components of congresses that had gathered even before Mustafa Kemal Pasha landed in Samsun on May 19, 1919—within itself and directed them toward a national goal.  

Mustafa Kemal Pasha is always organized and is a very good organizer. He is fulfilling the requirement of the Turkish proverb: "If there is no organization, there is difficulty." Mustafa Kemal Pasha is the commander-in-chief of an army that will conduct the War of Independence under the command of the Parliament, and he is the president of the Parliament. 

After the First World War was lost and the Ottoman armies were disbanded, and soldiers left their barracks and returned home following the decree issued by Sultan Vahdettin on November 5, 1918, the number of soldiers dropped from 650 thousand to 70–80 thousand. Under these conditions, Mustafa Kemal Pasha was trying to instill courage in the nation for a new war and to organize the public. Therefore, an institution is necessary that will make the nation accept the goal of national sovereignty and full independence, that will derive its support and power solely and only from the nation, and that will emerge from the bosom of the nation. That institution would be the Parliament. Every step to be taken would be based on the will of the Parliament and would be implemented by the will of the Parliament. 

Atatürk set out with the order of first the nation, then the parliament, then the army. While advocating for the Parliament to gather in Ankara, he said: "The nation and the Parliament, which is its representative, are the ones who will build the army."  

It must be a twist of history and fate that on November 13, 1918, two weeks after the Armistice of Mudros signed on October 30, 1918, the day the enemy fleet dropped anchor in the Bosphorus, meaning it effectively occupied the city, was the same day Mustafa Kemal Pasha arrived in Istanbul. As Mustafa Kemal Pasha traveled from Haydarpaşa toward Galata on the Enterprise (Kartal) steam launch belonging to the French occupation forces, the scene he saw was terrible. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was sad and angry in the face of the occupation fleet consisting of 61 pieces anchored in front of the Dolmabahçe Palace. Because this occupation fleet was the same occupation fleet we had defeated just a few years earlier in 1915 in Çanakkale by writing an epic and giving thousands of martyrs. Now, for it to come and drop anchor in the Bosphorus without encountering any obstacles is a situation that is difficult for the Turkish Nation to bear. 

As the Kartal steam launch passed in front of the enemy ships, Mustafa Kemal Pasha said the following to his close friend and doctor Rasim Ferit Talay and his aide-de-camp Cevat Abbas Gürer, who met him in Haydarpaşa: "I made a mistake. I should not have come to Istanbul. I must find a way to return to Anatolia by any means necessary." A few minutes later, pointing to the enemy ships in front of the Dolmabahçe Palace, he would say: "They will go as they came."   

THE NATIONAL PACT AND THE ROAD TO THE REPUBLIC  

Ottoman Sultan Vahdettin dissolved the Chamber of Deputies (Meclis-i Mebusan) on December 21, 1918, to hold new elections after the Armistice of Mudros signed on October 30, 1918. The elections were held 13 months later, and the last Ottoman Chamber of Deputies opened on January 12, 1920. Mustafa Kemal Pasha was a deputy for Erzurum in that parliament. The most important activity of this parliament was the unanimous adoption of the National Pact (Misak-ı Milli), the first draft text of which was written in line with Mustafa Kemal Pasha's views, on January 28, and its declaration on February 17, 1920. Although Mustafa Kemal Pasha was the Deputy for Erzurum, he did not participate in the work of the Chamber of Deputies and did not come to Istanbul. 

Mustafa Kemal Pasha's work, strong leadership, iron will, and rapid organization in Anatolia yielded its first results in Istanbul in a short time. The Damat Ferit Pasha Government, which could not prevent the liberation movement in Anatolia and whose authority was largely shaken, resigned, and the Ali Rıza Pasha Government was established in October 1919. After its establishment, it recognized the Anatolian Movement and the Representative Committee of the Association for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia as a legitimate and national movement. This attitude of the Ali Rıza Pasha Government was both a step back taken by Istanbul against Anatolia and proof of the growing and consolidating power of the movement in Anatolia. 

Let us repeat, before the elections for the last Ottoman Chamber of Deputies, Mustafa Kemal Pasha drew attention to the danger of the occupation of Istanbul and wanted the parliament to gather in Anatolia, but he could not convince even his closest colleagues on this matter. However, the Defense of Rights Group, based on the Anatolian Movement, still secured a majority and was influential in the last Ottoman parliament. Names close to Mustafa Kemal Pasha, such as Hüsrev Gerede, Mazhar Müfit Kansu, Rauf Orbay, İbrahim Süreyya Yiğit, and Bekir Sami Kunduh, were among the elected deputies. 

This situation angered the British greatly. Because Mustafa Kemal Pasha, who was not in Istanbul, was directing the Chamber of Deputies from Anatolia. After the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918, the enemy, who had dropped anchor in the Bosphorus starting from November 13, 1918, or in other words, had effectively occupied Istanbul, officially occupied Istanbul on March 16, 1920, and raided the parliament. They rounded up deputies, intellectuals, journalists, former Ministers of War, and chiefs of general staff who supported the Anatolian Movement, especially Rauf Bey, and exiled them to the island of Malta. Those who could escape the British raid crossed over to Anatolia. Among them were names such as İsmet İnönü, Yunus Nadi Abalıoğlu, President of the Chamber of Deputies Celalettin Arif, Halide Edip, and Adnan Adıvar. 

Atatürk was proven right, as always. While opposing the gathering of the parliament in Istanbul and warning against a British raid and possible arrests, he predicted what would happen with complete accuracy. This time, the parliament would gather in a safe place in Anatolia, in Ankara, albeit with a delay. Mustafa Kemal Pasha immediately began preparations. In his capacity as the Chairman of the Representative Committee of the Association for the Defense of the Rights of Anatolia and Rumelia, he issued a declaration to Anatolia on March 19, 1920, that is, 3 days after the parliament was dispersed by the British. He announced that a parliament with extraordinary powers would gather in Ankara. In the elections to be held for the parliament, 5 members would be elected from each district (sanjak). In addition to those coming with this election, deputies from the last Ottoman Chamber of Deputies, which gathered in Istanbul and was dispersed by the British, would also participate in the parliament that would gather in Ankara.  

THE SPIRIT OF THE NATIONAL FORCES AND THE VETERAN PARLIAMENT

The Parliament opened on Friday, April 23, 1920. Mustafa Kemal Pasha gave a long speech lasting a total of 5 hours in 4 sessions on April 24, 1920, and summarized the situation of the country. He listed the duties and priorities of the parliament. He was elected as the speaker of the parliament with the votes of 110 of the 120 deputies present in the parliament that day. The last President of the Ottoman Chamber of Deputies, Celalettin Arif Bey, was also elected as the second deputy speaker in the parliament. The first law passed by this parliament was the Animal Tax (Ağnam Vergisi), which was the last law passed by the Ottoman Chamber of Deputies. This choice is also symbolically important in terms of showing the continuity between the two parliaments.

The determination, resolve, bravery, and fearlessness of the deputies who gathered for the Veteran Parliament (Gazi Meclis) were also extraordinary. That parliament was a symbol of nobility, virtue, wisdom, foresight, and courage. For the parliament that gathered in Ankara, which was a tired and poor steppe town in 1920, the situation was the same for the deputies who could save their lives and come to Ankara from Istanbul, and for those who could reach Ankara in 10 or 15 days, sometimes on horseback and sometimes on foot, from the most remote corners of Anatolia. There were not many places in Ankara where they could stay. Most of the deputies were hosted in the homes of patriotic, hospitable people of Ankara. There were those who brought their pillows, quilts, and mattresses with them. In the Parliament, which had a leaking roof, they cooked their own meals and ate together from the same pot. The heating and lighting of the Parliament were very poor. Old sheet-metal stoves and gas lamps were collected from coffee houses. They sat at desks brought from the teachers' school. The parliamentary podium was a gift from patriotic carpenters from Ankara.

Besim Atalay, a linguist and deputy for Kütahya, one of the founders of the Association for the Defense of the Rights, recounts:

"The deputy salary was officially 100 liras. 20 liras of this was deducted as cigarette money for the army; 80 liras remained. I gave 25 liras of the remaining 80 liras as house rent. The house was in Ayrancı, which was very far from the Parliament. I would walk for an hour to get to the Parliament. I would try to get by with 55 liras until the end of the month. All my friends were like me. A year passed like this. Every day, we would leave the table, which was already simple, without being full" (Alptekin Müderrisoğlu, Financial Sources of the War of Independence, Atatürk Research Center Publications, Ankara, 1990, p: 256)

There is more. 7 deputies of that sublime Parliament, that revolutionary Parliament, that Veteran Parliament, that heroic Parliament, that state-founding Parliament, went to the front voluntarily with the rank of private. The following is written in the document given to one of those deputies, Geyve District Governor and later İzmit deputy Hamdi Namık Gör, signed by the President of the Grand National Assembly Mustafa Kemal: "He has volunteered for combat duty to serve as a private at the front; he must be supported and helped in every way." Date: 11. 1. 337 (1921). (İlhan Selçuk, "Geyve Kaymakamı", Cumhuriyet, 12. 07. 2001).

The Medal of Independence has a red ribbon, and the medals of the members of the Parliament have a green ribbon; Hamdi Namık Bey and the other 6 deputies carried medals with red-green ribbons because they also fought at the front. 

Let us also listen to the memoirs of Minister of Foreign Affairs Yusuf Kemal Tengirşenk:

French statesman Franklin Bouillon came to Ankara on June 9, 1921. The French were trying to learn the power and meaning of the National Struggle. In those days, the Greek army had captured Afyon. Ankara of that period, apart from the lack of everything, was completely devoid of the means to host a foreign minister. Yusuf Kemal Bey had a Western-style toilet built with great difficulty. Since there were no automobiles, a carriage with two horses was prepared for the guest minister. However, despite all searches, a dinner set to host the French guest could not be found in Ankara. As a last resort, Yusuf Kemal Bey made the following request to Mustafa Kemal Pasha: Could the Mim Mim Group, the secret organization in Istanbul working for the National Forces, smuggle a 6-person dinner set from Istanbul and send it to Ankara? Because there were no 6-person plates and matching service sets in Ankara. (MM is also referred to as National Defense. For detailed information, see: Selahattin Salışık, The Secret Organization of the War of Independence, Kaynak Publications, İstanbul, 1999).

Mustafa Kemal responded to this request as follows:

"Yusuf Kemal Bey… When this Frenchman arrived at the Ankara station, he saw the miserable state of the honor guard. The soldiers didn't even have boots. The caps on their heads and the rifles on their shoulders were all different. He came to see and measure your endurance amidst these inadequacies. If you treat him with gold-gilded tableware embroidered with the Ottoman tughra, he will say, 'The Sublime Porte mentality continues in them too, amazing! They have claims of saving the homeland and opening a new era on the same path, but it's just soap bubbles.' And he will wink at Paris on the way to completing the invasion. Take the man, bring him to the Parliament, let him see the rise of dignity in the form of a single fist. Let him eat a single course of meal from the school mess tin with a wooden plate and a wooden spoon. And let him try to understand the solid foundation of the nation within this apparent lack. Anyway, he will now wait for the result of the war that has begun. First believe in yourself, then make your guest believe…"

The spirit that opened the First Parliament, the Constituent Assembly, and the Veteran Parliament on April 23, 1920, is this spirit, the spirit of the National Forces. When Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the unique leader of the Turkish people who founded a state through war and revolution, who became a state while becoming a nation and became a nation while becoming a state, set out from Istanbul to Samsun on the Bandırma Ferry on May 16, 1919, he said the following to his comrades-in-arms on the ferry about the occupying enemy, and these words are the bronze law and roadmap of all wars of independence: 

"These people rely only on iron, steel, and military force like this. The only thing they know is matter. They cannot understand the power of those who have decided to die for the sake of freedom. We are not taking weapons or ammunition to Anatolia; we are taking ideals and faith."