The Young Turk Revolution, the Turkic World, and Türk Yurdu Magazine

The Second Constitutional Era, declared in 1908, also known as the Young Turk Revolution, holds a special, unique, and significant place in Turkish history during the final period of the Ottoman Empire. In one respect, it was the final attempt to preserve the Ottoman State, and in another, as defined by Prof. Dr. Tarık Zafer Tunaya, it was a political laboratory for the pre-Republican era. 

The 1908 Young Turk Revolution is also significant in terms of our press history, as censorship was abolished. The press experienced major developments in both quantity and quality. Intellectual richness and diversity increased. In parallel with the growing weight of external developments in domestic politics, the place of foreign policy on the press's agenda gained even more importance. With the influence of the preferences of the cadres seeking solutions to the crisis the Ottoman State was facing, news and commentary regarding the outside world multiplied. 

During that period, in 1911, Türk Yurdu, which began publication under the leadership of Turkist and nationalist cadres, most of whom were supporters of the Committee of Union and Progress, was an important magazine. The magazine's publications, generally on foreign policy and specifically on Turks living outside the Ottoman State—Turks in Central Asia, the Caucasus, or in other words, external Turks—were closely followed. External Turks held an important place in the magazine, whose founders were Mehmet Emin, Müftüoğlu Ahmet Hikmet, Ağaoğlu Ahmet, Hüseyinzade Ali, Dr. Akil Muhtar, and Akçuraoğlu Yusuf.

THE MEANING OF THE YOUNG TURK REVOLUTION 

The Young Turk Revolution laid the groundwork for the Republic in terms of both its founding cadres and its founding philosophy. It influenced the fundamental actions and processes that shaped the Republic. In this sense, it established the Turkish Revolution Model and became the prologue to the Kemalist Revolution and the Republic. The accumulation, experience, and cadres that carried out the War of Independence, founded the Republic, and implemented the revolutions emerged and were trained during that process. 

The Young Turk Revolution is an important part of the revolutions of the “oppressed nations,” a term coined by Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Young Turk Revolution, which aimed for a constitutional and legal regime against an absolutist, authoritarian, and despotic government and had a social base, also resonated in Europe and was closely followed. The great powers of Europe soon took a stance against the Young Turk Revolution out of concern that it would reorganize and consolidate the Ottoman State and serve as an example to the colonies of the great European powers. They began propaganda against the Young Turks. Their rapid change of stance against the Young Turks, whom they had viewed with sympathy before the revolution, caused some intellectuals in Europe to criticize the governments in their own countries with harsh expressions. In terms of showing the hypocrisy of the Europeans, what the famous French thinker Jean Jaures wrote in the July 15, 1908 issue of the socialist-leaning newspaper L’Humanite, which he founded and edited, is important:

“If the Young Turks have the power to prevail with a program of reforms and guarantees, they will save a magnificent people from destruction and protect Europe from a long and very terrible crisis. At present, this is not possible; because the Turks, who are committed to the independence and integrity of their country, do not realize that the regime of extravagance, fanaticism, brutality, and disorder incited in their country creates a pretext for foreign intervention. It is Europe's duty to support with all its might this autonomous movement that could reconcile all societies in the Balkans. But alas! Europe's conscience is so darkened and degraded that this alone is sufficient reason for us to fear that the Turkish reformers will not be supported as they should be. Will Germany, which exploits the disgusting regime of Abdul Hamid, approve of reforms that will bring vitality and independence to Turkey? Can England, which is complicit in the oppression of the Iranian people, feel a sincere and open affinity for this awakening of the Turkish people, in a way that would form a complete antithesis to its Asian policy? And how can France, which drives people to despair and rebellion with a frenzied tax system in Indochina and destroys autonomy initiatives in Morocco, support national reforms in Turkey? I am not even mentioning the Russian government, which creates destruction through oppression everywhere. All European powers are openly greedy; they are burdened with grave sins committed against humanity. They are in no position to lecture even Abdul Hamid. Nevertheless, if Europe were to have a little prudence and common sense and wanted to prevent the turmoil, dangers, and fears that could arise from the Balkan Question, it should support with all its will and desire the great Turkish party in Turkey, which will bring justice to everyone, Muslim and Christian, and eliminate the interventions of European powers that are generally incompatible with each other.(1) 

The contribution of the press of the period was important in the success of the Young Turk Revolution. In particular, the pro-Young Turk press broadcasting from abroad had a great impact. Ottoman intellectuals, who began publishing newspapers without state support starting in 1861, and especially the Young Turks in the following years, assigned important functions to the press. They did not see newspapers merely as a communication tool for reporting news, but also used them to educate the public or engage in politics. During that period and afterwards, the press became one of the most dynamic institutions of society. Discussions held in the parliament were evaluated through the commentaries of newspapers. The dynamism gained by the press started a new era in both our press and intellectual history. Although society made limited use of the printing press for book production after its adoption in 1727, it took advanced steps in newspaper production. Thus, it turned towards changing through a newspaper culture rather than a book culture.(2) 

In the first two months after the Young Turk Revolution, over 200 newspaper licenses were obtained. Newspaper circulations rose from 2 thousand to 50 thousand. In the first three and a half years of the Second Constitutional Era, 607 newspapers and magazines were published. Very few of these were able to last for a long time; some closed after a few issues, others after three or five months. In the ten-and-a-half-year period until the end of 1918, 918 newspapers and magazines were published. Although a decrease was observed in the number of new publications during the Balkan War, there were significant increases again in 1913.(3) 

TURKISH NATIONALISM AND TÜRK YURDU MAGAZINE 

Türk Yurdu Magazine was a very important publication organ of Turkish nationalism in the process that began with the Young Turk Revolution. It had a great impact on the intellectual life of the period. The writers and thinkers who gathered around the magazine created a work that was closely followed not only by the intellectual political elite but also by the public. Türk Yurdu was closely followed not only in the Ottoman State but also among Turks in the Caucasus and Central Asia, and it deeply influenced intellectuals and young people. 

In addition to Türk Yurdu Magazine's perspective on external Turks, its publication policy, which interpreted and developed nationalism in a populist, secular, and anti-imperialist manner, is also important. It is significant that Yusuf Akçura, while listing the characteristics of a modern state, referred to the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the French Revolution, defended populism, characterized feudalism as an obstacle before the modern state, and pointed to imperialism as an external obstacle. These words of Yusuf Akçura were taken from a speech he gave in June 1925 within the framework of the Darülfünun Conferences: “The essential quality of a modern state is popular sovereignty (democracy); it is not liberalism. The people, or rather the majority of the people, who dominate the modern state, do not sacrifice their own interests for the freedom of narrow groups”.(4) 

Türk Yurdu Magazine is very important within the scope of the organizational and publishing activities of the Turkists. In the days following the Young Turk Revolution, Turkist cadres, who received the support of the Committee of Union and Progress, were at the forefront both in organizational efforts and in the increase in publications. The first organizational attempt of the Turkists was the Turkish Association (Türk Derneği), founded on January 7, 1909. It was a cultural association whose members also included Armenians and some European orientalists. The Türk Yurdu Society was founded on August 31, 1911. Its purpose was to provide housing for Turkish students. The association also published Türk Yurdu Magazine, which had an important place in the development of Turkism. The beginning of disastrous days for the Ottoman State with the Italo-Turkish War accelerated the Turkism movement. The Turkish Hearth (Türk Ocağı) began its activities on July 3, 1911, at the Military Medical School where the Committee of Union and Progress was founded... The official establishment of the Turkish Hearth was March 25, 1912... The Turkish Hearth showed very lively activity, especially with the conferences given every Friday in Istanbul, performances with men and women, articles followed with great interest in Türk Yurdu Magazine, which became the publication organ of the hearth, and its approaches in the field of national economy.(5) 

The idea of Türk Yurdu was put forward by the poet Mehmet Emin Bey, and the Committee of Union and Progress also showed interest in this initiative. (6) On the first page of the first issue of Türk Yurdu Magazine, which began its publication life in Istanbul on August 31, 1911, as the publication organ of the Türk Yurdu Society, and which would later be known as the publication organ of the Turkish Hearth, the “Purpose and Profession” was explained as follows under the signature of Türk Yurdu: “We want to serve Turkism and be of benefit to Turks. This is our purpose. Since the contents of our magazine will show the paths we will follow to reach our purpose, we find further explanation of our profession unnecessary. May God be our helper”.

The idea of publishing Türk Yurdu Magazine belongs to Mehmet Emin Bey. But when he was appointed Governor of Erzurum in August 1911, the responsible editorship of the magazine was undertaken by Akçuraoğlu Yusuf Bey, who was also a delegate member of the Türk Yurdu Society. The intellectual principles of the magazine, which began to be published under his management, are as follows:

First, the pamphlet will be written in a way that can be read, understood, and benefited from by as many of the Turkish race as possible. The language will be simple. Subjects beneficial to the majority of the nation will be selected. Even difficult subjects will be attempted to be expressed easily. The taste and benefit of the enlightened will not be overlooked.

Second, the pamphlet will strive to create an ideal that can be accepted by all Turks.

Third, subjects that serve the Turks' getting to know each other, rising in economy and morality, and being enriched in technical knowledge will be given the most space in the pamphlet, and politics will come after these.

Fourth, in order for Turks to get to know each other, events happening all over the Turkic world, especially those that will cause joy or sorrow among brothers, and intellectual currents forming here and there in the Turkic world will be recorded, and it will strive to make the literature born in the various ethnicities of the Turkish race known to all members of the race.

Fifth, while the pamphlet discusses the domestic policy of the Ottoman State, it will not favor any political party, but will defend the political and economic interests of Turkism and the Turkish element. While defending the interests of the Turkish element, it will strive to avoid creating conflicts among different elements.

Sixth, the pamphlet will work hard for the development and strengthening of the Turkish national spirit among Ottoman Turks, for the removal of laziness and pessimism that stem from a lack of ideals, and will try as much as it can to save this nation from the exaggerated fear of the West that often arises without being based on anything.

Seventh, the basic idea of the pamphlet's international politics is to defend the interests of the Turkic world.

Türk Yurdu Magazine was published with great ambition under the conditions of the period and made a splash. The magazine's financial resource problem was solved with the support of the Hasanovs, a wealthy Tatar family from Orenburg. (7) 

TÜRK YURDU MAGAZINE REPRINTED

Türk Yurdu Magazine was printed in 1998 in the Latin alphabet and as a collection. The project that enabled the 26-volume collection, 22 volumes of which were translated from the old script, to be released came to the agenda in the last months of 1997. Tutibay Publications in Ankara realized the project at the end of 1998. Arslan Tekin wrote the following in the “Introduction” he penned for the Turkish edition of the magazine:

“We can say that the source of the Republic of Turkey is Türk Yurdu. It gave the Republic its ‘national character.’ Almost all the names we can call the cornerstone of Turkish thought and literature wrote in this magazine... Since the Turkic World was seen as a whole, the geographical boundaries of the era were exceeded, and the conditions of wherever there were Turks were addressed... Türk Yurdu performed an extremely important duty in terms of putting forward the idea of Turkish nationalism by launching its publication life at the beginning of the 20th century, when the Ottoman State began to crumble and great intellectual upheavals were experienced. During the period the magazine was published, two Balkan Wars, one World War, one War of Independence, and one Bolshevik Revolution were experienced. Ottoman lands fell from millions of square kilometers to 780 thousand square kilometers. In the 780 thousand square kilometers of land, a brand new Turkish State emerged, and great social and cultural events took place. (8) 

Hüseyin Tuncer, who has comprehensive studies on Türk Yurdu Magazine, examined the magazine's publication life in 7 main sections and evaluated the years 1911-1918, which he classified as the first period of the magazine, as follows:

The first issue began to be published on November 24, 1327 (1911), in 18x25 size. This issue included Mehmet Emin Bey's poem “Demirci” (The Blacksmith), Ahmet Hikmet Bey's story “Üzümcü” (The Grape Grower), the first of Sadri Maksudi Arsal's article series “Büyük Milli Emeller” (Great National Aspirations) under the signature Can Bey, Ahmet Ağayef's (Ağaoğlu) article titled “Türk Alemi” (Turkic World), and Yusuf Akçura's serial “Çingiz Han” (Genghis Khan). The magazine was published every fifteen days, with 32 pages. It received great interest. It sold out in the first days of its release and went into a second printing. The concessionaire of the magazine was Mehmet Emin. When he went to Erzurum as governor in August 1911, he left the concessionaire directorship of the magazine to Akçuraoğlu Yusuf Bey. Between 1911 and 1912, the director of the magazine was Akçuraoğlu Yusuf Bey. Between October 1912 and November 1913, since Akçuraoğlu Yusuf Bey participated in the war on the Çatalca Front as a General Staff Captain, the 3rd and 4th volumes of the magazine were published by Mehmet Emin. From the 5th volume in 1913 to the 12th volume in 1917, the director was Yusuf Akçura again. Yusuf Akçura left the magazine after the 12th issue of the 12th volume. From the 13th volume onwards, the magazine continued to be published as the publication organ of the Turkish Hearth. In 1917, the director for the 13th and 14th volumes was Celâl Sahir Bey. Due to the conditions the country was in, Türk Yurdu had to suspend its publication from July 15, 1918, to 1924. Between 1911 and 1918, in a seven-year period, the magazine was published in Istanbul as 14 volumes and 161 issues. (9)

The old-script issues of Türk Yurdu, which was published in the old script as 205 issues and 22 volumes from 1911 to February 1929, amount to 8 thousand pages. The magazine, which could not be published for 4 months due to the First World War, published 18 issues in 1914, the year the war began. After the 71st issue, which covered the period between July 24 and August 6, was published, the 72nd issue could only be on the market on December 10, 1914. The second period of publication, which began in 1924, lasted until 1931. From August 1928, it was published with a mix of new and old scripts. This situation continued until February 1929. Türk Yurdu began publication again in 1942. 

TÜRK YURDU MAGAZINE AND EXTERNAL TURKS 

As stated in its basic principles when it began publication, Türk Yurdu followed a Turkist publication line on an ideological plane. It was closely interested in external Turks, especially Turks in Central Asia and the Caucasus. In this context, those who wanted the Turks in Russia to attain the widest possible autonomy, those who desired them to be completely independent, and those who advocated for all Turks in the world to come together and establish a great Turkish state read, followed, and supported Türk Yurdu. 

Paul Dumont wrote the following in his article titled “Türk Yurdu Magazine and the Muslims of Russia (1911-1914)”: “Exceptionally in the Ottoman press, Türk Yurdu immediately reached a wide distribution both inside and outside Turkey... Türk Yurdu was clearly oriented towards Pan-Turanism. In this respect, it is important that the financial support that allowed the distribution of this magazine came from Russia... This Pan-Turkist orientation manifested itself not only in the articles of immigrants from Russia (Yusuf Akçura and Ahmed Agayef) but also in Ottoman Turks such as Ziya Gökalp, Halide Edip, and Mehmet Emin. ‘News from the Turkic World’ (Article 4 of the publication principles) undoubtedly helped give the magazine a Pan-Turkist impression at the same time. When we browse through the Türk Yurdu collection, the most striking thing is the important place given to the ideas of İsmail Gaspıralı. Many articles bear his signature”. (10) 

The fact that Türk Yurdu Magazine included articles by İsmail Gaspıralı, especially his writings in the Tercüman newspaper, which he founded and managed, reflected the magazine's attitude, politics, and view of the Turkic world as much as the respect it felt for Gaspıralı. The intellectual weight of another Turkist thinker, Yusuf Akçura, alongside his managerial position at Türk Yurdu, can be explained as follows: Akçura's Pan-Turkist ideas undoubtedly determined his articles on the Central Asian agenda, and with a broad perspective, they included the entire Turan world from China to the Danube. For example, he interpreted events in China or Iran as signs of the same revolutionary spirit blowing in Turan. A significant portion of the articles included the Ottoman Empire and Turkic regions in Russia. (11)

When the classification of the articles published in Türk Yurdu is taken into account, it is seen that the most articles were written on literature (6 volumes, 180 articles), and articles written on Turkic peoples (149 articles) came in second place. History (62 articles) is in 3rd place. Tercüman from Crimea, Vakit from Orenburg, and İkbal from Baku are among the most cited newspapers whose articles were published in the press columns of the magazine. (12) 

Apart from articles on the Turkic world, national economy, the situation of tradesmen, Turkish-Russian relations, Turkish language, geography, ethnography, Iranian Turks, ancient Turkic civilizations, consciousness of Turkism, the cradle of the Turkish race, works belonging to Turkism, and education and training are the most frequently covered topics. In the magazine, where leading Turkists such as Yusuf Akçura, Halim Sabit, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Mehmet Emin Resulzade, İsmail Gaspıralı, and Zeki Velidi wrote, there is also an important name like Ziya Gökalp. In addition, writers from the Young Pens (Genç Kalemler) circle such as Ali Canip, Ömer Seyfettin, and Aka Gündüz also wrote. Abdülhak Hamid, Köprülüzade Mehmet Fuat, Celal Sahir, Hamdullah Suphi, Abdullah Cevdet, Akil Muhtar, and Celal Nuri were also among the writers. With the quote François Georgeon made from Paul Dumont; “Türk Yurdu is the great magazine of Turkish nationalism; this magazine, under the management of Akçura and Ağaoğlu, followed a very clear Pan-Turkist line under their influence”. (13)

Tarık Zafer Tunaya's view on the period is as follows: “The Turkism movement represented the needs and excitements of the time. Türk Yurdu had various publication organs such as Yeni Mecmua. Relying on a deep-rooted cultural institution (Turkish Hearth) also prepared the possibilities for broad influence. In addition, the fact that the Committee of Union and Progress, as the sole and ruling party, combined this movement with Islamism and made it a program gave the Turkism movement a distinct feature”. (14) The fact that Türk Yurdu had both the Turkish Hearth, of which it was the publication organ, and the Committee of Union and Progress behind it not only increased the magazine's political power and prestige but also facilitated its distribution and ensured its spread. While new institutions were being established, from women's associations to professional, cultural, and sports organizations, the Turkish Hearth became the preparer and disseminator of the doctrine of nationalism. (15)

THE POLITICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TÜRK YURDU MAGAZINE 

Türk Yurdu is important not only as a magazine but also as an environment where an important political cadre met. The magazine was influential not only with its political stance and writers who were active in politics but also with its literary aspect and cultural dimension. The approaches of the magazine's Turkist and nationalist writers towards external Turks both resonated ideologically and influenced the Committee of Union and Progress, the most influential political organization of the period. The line of Türk Yurdu, a magazine that looked at Turkism from a populist, secular, socialist, and anti-imperialist perspective, had communalist-statist preferences in the economy, defended enlightenment values, and took science as a guide, also influenced the cadre that founded the Republic. It is important that the magazine's writers set out with Pan-Turkist ideas and decided on homeland nationalism, adopting a nationalism based on homeland, nation, language, and culture, rather than a racist or expansionist one. After the establishment of the Republic, the magazine's writers also undertook important duties as politicians, thinkers, and scientists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) Jean Jaures, “Türk Reformları” (Turkish Reforms), Radikal, 14. 07. 2008, p: 9.

2) Orhan Koloğlu, 1908 Basın Patlaması (1908 Press Explosion), Istanbul, Bas- Haş, 2005, p: 16.

3) Hıfzı Topuz, Türk Basın Tarihi (History of the Turkish Press), Istanbul, Remzi Kitabevi, 2003, p: 82- 84.

4) Yusuf Akçura, “Çağdaş Türk Devleti ve Aydınlara Düşen Görev” (The Modern Turkish State and the Duty of Intellectuals), Teori Dergisi, Issue: 165, October 2003, p: 6.

5) Sina Akşin, Kısa Türkiye Tarihi (A Short History of Turkey), Istanbul, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2007, p: 86.

6) Yusuf Akçura, Türkçülüğün Tarihi (History of Turkism), Istanbul, Kaynak Yayınları, 2001, p: 167.

7) Türk Yurdu, Volume 1, Ankara, Tutibay Yayınları, 1998, p: XIII- XIV.

8) Türk Yurdu, Volume 1, Ankara, Tutibay Yayınları, 1998, p: XI.

9) Hüseyin Tuncer, Doksanıncı Yılında Türk Yurdu Bibliyografyası (1911- 2001) (Türk Yurdu Bibliography in its Ninetieth Year (1911-2001)), Ankara, TürkYurdu Yayınları, 2002.

10) Paul Dumont, “Türk Yurdu Dergisi ve Rusya Müslümanları (1911-1914)” (Türk Yurdu Magazine and the Muslims of Russia (1911-1914)), Türk Yurdu Volume 1, Ankara, Tutibay Yayınları, 1998, p: XIX-XX.

11) Paul Dumont, op. cit., p: XXIII-XXIV.

12) Türk Yurdu, Volume 1, Ankara, Tutibay Yayınları, 1998, p: XL- XLI.

13) François Georgeon, Osmanlı- Türk Modernleşmesi (Ottoman-Turkish Modernization), Trans: Ali Berktay, Istanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2006, p: 29.

14) Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Türkiye’nin Siyasi Hayatında Batılılaşma Hareketleri (Westernization Movements in Turkey's Political Life), Istanbul, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004, p: 75.

15) Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Hürriyetin İlanı (The Declaration of Liberty), Istanbul, İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004, p: 37.