Istanbul Administration-1: Constitutional Monarchy, Armistice, and the Atatürk Era

When the TBMM (Grand National Assembly of Turkey) Government took over Istanbul, the former capital had been demoted to a province and was a city that had fallen out of favor. The political and administrative center was now Ankara, a small Anatolian town. The true liberation of Istanbul was realized with the Treaty of Lausanne. After the peace treaty was ratified, the Allies evacuated the city. When the Municipalities Law of 1930 was enacted, the local and provincial administrations in Istanbul were merged into a single administration. The Provincial General Assembly assumed the function of the municipal council under the name “City Council.”

The unified administration of Istanbul continued until the end of the Fahrettin Kerim Gökay era. The Democrat Party, with the 1954 Law No. 6349, “Law on the Separation of the Istanbul Unified Administration,” separated the Istanbul Municipality from the provincial administration. The mayor being elected through a two-stage election process continued until 1963. The first major changes in the city's appearance occurred after Atatürk's passing, during the tenure of Dr. Lütfi Kırdar as governor and  will take place during his tenure as mayor. The radical changes in Istanbul's appearance, however, coincide with the Democrat Party era. The urban development initiatives led by Menderes formed the infrastructure of today's Istanbul. 

THE ADMINISTRATIVE LEGACY INHERITED FROM THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE  

The institution to which municipal affairs were delegated after the Tanzimat reforms was the "Ministry of Inspection" (İhtisap Nezareti). This institution was later abolished,  and a municipal organization under the name of the Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti), reporting to the Supreme Council (Meclis-i Vala), was established.

With the enactment of the 1877 Municipal Laws for Dersaadet (Istanbul) and the Provinces, two separate municipal regulations were established for Istanbul and the provinces. In this way, a municipal organization was founded in Istanbul. According to this law, the Council of the City Prefecture (Şehremaneti Meclisi) would consist of 6 members and the mayor (şehremini), and all members were to be appointed by the Sultan. As can be seen, in the administration of municipal affairs in Dersaadet, an "electoral mechanism" was not envisioned, and the Istanbul Municipality was established as a public authority subordinate to the Supreme Council (Meclis-i Vala). 

According to the law, The City Prefecture (Şehremaneti)was to be divided into districts. The primary ones among these were the districts of Fatih, Eminönü, Eyüp, Bakırköy, Beyoğlu, Şişli, Kadıköy, Beykoz, the Princes' Islands (Adalar), and Beşiktaş. In 1913, the Committee of Union and Progress administration issued the "Provisional Law on the  Municipality Organization of the Capital (Dersaadet)" and abolished the Municipal Council. It transferred the council's powers to the Committee (Encümen). The administration of Istanbul's municipal affairs was conducted in this manner until the enactment of Law No. 1580 in 1930.

ISTANBUL ADMINISTRATION AFTER THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

As the First World War continued, Istanbul faced numerous hardships. Various regulations were implemented to manage the city's food supply, the Ministry of Provisions was established. Cemil (Topuzlu) Pasha, who served as mayor between 1912 and 1914, was recalled to duty during the Armistice and served as mayor again from 1919 to 1920. 

Following the decisions of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) declaring that the Ottoman State had passed into history, Dersaadet (Istanbul) was attached to the Ankara Government as a province. Upon this, on November 4, 1922, the municipal council, convened under the chairmanship of Mayor Ziya Bey,  declared their allegiance to the TBMM Government.

On April 13, 1923, the Ministry of Interior dismissed Istanbul Mayor Ziya Bey and appointed Istanbul Governor Haydar Bey as Mayor, on the condition that he retain his governorship. The practice of the Istanbul Governor simultaneously holding the office of Mayor continued from that date until the end of the Democrat Party era. 

Successively, Ali Haydar Bey (Yuluğ) between 1923-24, Surgeon Emin Erkul between 1924-28, Muhittin Üstündağ between 1928-38, Lütfi Kırdar between 1938-49, and Ord. Prof. Dr. Fahrettin Kerim Gökay between 1949-57 served in this capacity as Governor-Mayor. The Democrat Party, through a law it enacted, separated the Istanbul Municipality from the governorship in a phased process.

During the process of connecting the old Istanbul administration to Ankara, The Istanbul General Municipal Council (Cemiyet-i Umumiye-i Belediye) elections, were held during the term of Governor Haydar Bey. This election was limited in terms of voters. It consisted of representatives from the 'Daire' (district municipalities).

The true significance of these elections lies in the fact that they served as a power struggle between the remnants of the Committee of Union and Progress (İttihat ve Terakki) political cadres organized in Istanbul and the Kemalist Ankara. The first round of the Unionist-Kemalist friction, which continued beneath the surface until the 1926 Izmir assassination attempt, took place during the 1923 Istanbul General Municipal Council elections.  

ISTANBUL UNIFIED ADMINISTRATION: GOVERNOR-MAYORSHIP

While the leaders of the Turkish revolution introduced many innovations regarding central administration,  they also made changes in the field of local government. In these regulations, the administrations of the capital Ankara and Istanbul the civil and local administrations of the provinces were handled separately. The Municipalities Law No. 1580, dated 1930, was essentially a framework law; its primary purpose was to regulate the municipalities established in the provinces. Enacted in the same year, the Public Health Law No. 1593 also tasked municipalities with providing public health services at the local level. The law in question granted broader initiative in municipal affairs to provinces other than Ankara and Istanbul. 

According to this law, which was one of the most significant regulations of the Republican administration regarding local governments, municipal elections were essentially the election of municipal council members. Once the election was completed, municipal councils could elect a mayor from among their own members or from outside, provided the candidate met the eligibility requirements. However, due to the central government's tutelary oversight of local administrations, mayors began their duties upon the nomination by the governor in non-provincial centers, or by the Minister of the Interior in provincial centers, and the subsequent approval of the President.

The office of mayor, which was assigned to the Governor of Istanbul, Haydar Bey, in 1923, was transformed into a governor-mayor position in accordance with the exception clause in Article 149 of the law enacted in 1930. 

The Istanbul Municipality and the local administration of the Istanbul province were merged. The law, “The Governor of Istanbul shall perform the duties of the Mayor of Istanbul” stated. Since the two separate local administrations, the municipality and the provincial special administration, were merged for Istanbul, the Provincial General Assembly and the Municipal Council were effectively combined. Following the 1930 elections, the Istanbul General Assembly was opened by Governor-Mayor Muhittin Üstündağ. The unified administration of the province and the municipality began. The offices of the province and the mayor were held by the governor for a period of 25 years, from 1923 to 1958. The last governor-mayor of Istanbul, who was appointed to this position by the Democrat Party, was Ethem Yetkiner . The person who succeeded him, Kemal Aygün, was the first mayor to be elected by the Municipal Council. Aygün remained in the office of mayor until May 27, 1960.

ISTANBUL'S NUTRITIONAL NEEDS 

During the imperial era, Istanbul was fed by wheat from Rumelia. It was during the years of the First World War that the city first turned to Anatolian resources for its food supply. The Allied blockade compelled the Committee of Union and Progress governments to make this decision. During the Armistice years, when Istanbul faced a grain shortage, the Allied administration brought flour from the USA and released it into the market. With the Republic, Istanbul began to be fed by the resources of Anatolia,  which had been initiated by the Unionists the "national economy" principle was continued. 

As for meeting the demand for vegetables and fruits, the city's internal gardens, the villages along the Bosphorus, and the resources of nearby provinces had been sufficient from the Byzantine era through the imperial and republican periods.

Meeting the city's meat demand was different from the procurement of flour and vegetables. Due to the size of the city, meeting meat demand and regulating prices had been a serious issue since the classical Ottoman centuries, and an organization was established for this purpose. The Republican administration completed the construction of the Sütlüce Slaughterhouse, which had been initiated during the armistice, and put it into service, establishing the "Istanbul Municipality Karaağaç Institutions." Furthermore, to meet the meat demand of the Princes' Islands, a "slaughterhouse motorboat" was built at the Maritime Bank Hasköy Shipyard and put into service in 1956. As can be seen, until the 1960s, the city managed to organize its nutritional needs by sourcing resources from nearby regions.  has succeeded. The city's integration with global capitalism would be realized step by step after the 1960s.

ISTANBUL'S WATER, ELECTRICITY, AND COAL GAS NEEDS 

From the Byzantine era to the Republic, water supply to Istanbul has always been a significant issue. The numerous cisterns within the Walled City serve as evidence of this. The Valens Aqueduct (Bozdoğan) was a system that collected water from the vicinity of the Belgrade Forest and brought it to the city in the pre-Ottoman period. The fact that Istanbul became one of the world's largest cities in the Early Modern and Modern eras made it necessary to find and transport more water sources, starting from the time of Mimar Sinan. The dams on the European side utilized the waters in the Sarıyer region as a reserve from the reign of Sultan Ahmed III to Mahmud II.  The established system relied on transporting water from reserves around Bahçeköy, Sarıyer, and the Belgrade Forest to the city using water towers and conduits (the principle of communicating vessels).

The most important step taken to meet the increasing water demand in the 19th century was the establishment of the Dersaadet Joint Stock Water Companyduring the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz. The company was founded in 1876 with a concession contract granted to bring water from Lake Terkos, an important water basin, to the city. In 1932, by the order of Atatürk, the Istanbul Water Administration until it was established, Terkos met the needs of the city's European side. The name of the company that supplied water to Istanbul "Terkos" has become an expression used to this day to refer to city tap water.

As of 1885, the Dersaadet Joint Stock Water Company was delivering water to the city via a 97-km-long masonry gallery line. For this purpose, a filtration station was established in Kağıthane. In 1933, the company was nationalized and incorporated into the Istanbul Water Administration. Atatürk requested that Engineer Ziya Bey (Erdem) be appointed as the director of the administration; Ziya Bey, the first director of the I.S.I., remained in office for 12 years. Since steam pumps were used in Terkos until 1967, the necessary coal was brought from Zonguldak to the village of Karaburun and then transported to Terkos via a narrow-gauge railway. The Terkos pumping station was the first steam-powered pumping station in Turkey.

On the Anatolian side, water supply "Üsküdar-Kadıköy Water Company" was provided through foundation (vakıf) waters until it was established. The company in question was a French firm granted a concession to supply water to the Anatolian side. The company, at the Anadoluhisarı and Göksu spring With Henri Gruner's project, he built the Elmalı Dam between 1891 and 1893. When the dam was first built,  an earth-fill system was used. The dam, which was partially destroyed in a major flood in 1916, was reinforced with concrete fill in 1926. Later, it was nationalized by the Istanbul Water Administration. The Elmalı Dam met the water needs of the population between Anadoluhisarı and Bostancı until 1937. In 1954, the Elmalı II dam was built by another French company.

Steam energy was used for pumping and purification processes in both Terkos and Elmalı. Until the end of the Democrat Party (DP) years,  the resources of these two basins were sufficient to meet Istanbul's water needs. However, as the city grew rapidly from the 1960s onwards, the Ömerli and Darlık dams on the Anatolian side and the Alibeyköy dam on the European side would be constructed. 

Istanbul's fuel needs during the Ottoman period were met through the cooperation of the Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti), the Ministry of Trade and Agriculture, and the Ministry of Forestry and Mines. This was an exceptionally important issue that the municipality could not handle alone. The primary source of fuel was the forests of Thrace, which were close to Istanbul. The forests of Şile, Ağva, and Kandıra were also regions that were partially utilized.

Lignite coal brought from Thrace was also used as fuel. From the 19th century onwards, the Zonguldak hard coal reserves began to be used for Istanbul. During the years of the First World War, both for warships and The Şirket-i Hayriye ferry coal needs were met at the site where the Cemil Topuzlu Park is located today, which housed the Kuruçeşme coal depots at the time. They remained an inseparable part of the city's landscape for three-quarters of a century until the mayoral term of Bedrettin Dalan.

Electricity production in the city began with the establishment of the Silahtarağa Thermal Power Plant, and the first lighting took place at the Dolmabahçe Palace. The tender for the concession contract was won by a The Austrian-Hungarian company "Ganz Electric Company" won the bid, and the company that received the concession began operating under the name "Ottoman Joint Stock Electricity Company." Following the removal of horse-drawn trams, the trams began to operate on electricity.

The Silahtarağa Power Plant, which produced electrical energy from coal, met the city's needs between 1914 and 1952, after which Istanbul was connected to the national electricity grid. Coal gas was also used for the first time in 1853 at the Dolmabahçe Palace. After the Dolmabahçe Gasworks, gas production and distribution centers were established in Yedikule and Kadıköy, and coal gas began to be supplied to the city. The coal gas production centers continued to produce gas at a low level until their concession contracts expired in 1984. 

ATATÜRK'S ATTITUDE TOWARD ISTANBUL   

As is known, the Great Atatürk did not visit Istanbul for a long time after the National War of Independence was brought to a successful conclusion. At first glance, this is an attitude that might seem strange. Atatürk returned to the city, which he had left on May 15, 1919, in his capacity as an army inspector, eight years later.

Although the sultanate and the caliphate were abolished, the Ottoman dynasty was sent abroad, and all institutions of the old regime were liquidated, it is significant that the leader of the Turkish Revolution did not visit Istanbul, a city he loved dearly, until July 1, 1927. 

Undoubtedly, the fact that Istanbul represented the old regime is a significant factor behind this stance. To this, one can add that the opposition was organized by the Progressive Republican Party's Istanbul deputies.  As a third reason, it can be pointed out that the groups wishing to revive the Committee of Union and Progress behind the 1926 Izmir assassination attempt were organized in Istanbul. 

Interestingly, before Atatürk's grand return to Istanbul, the former capital practically pleaded with him; the press is full of countless examples of this. Until 1927, Istanbul waited for the great savior in a state of mind that was almost embarrassed and guilty.

Beyond all of this, this “state of estrangement” is another factor that can explain Atatürk’s state of mind. This subject Vamık Volkan and Norman Itzkowitz using psychoanalysis in their work titled “Immortal Atatürk,” define the day of his return as an “oedipal victory.”

Another point that should be emphasized is that during the period before Atatürk had even arrived in Istanbul, a campaign organized by the Municipality commissioned the famous sculptor Heinrich Krippel to create the famous statue at Sarayburnu. The depiction of Atatürk in the work, which was commissioned in 1925 and completed in 1926, is significant. In his work, Krippel portrays Atatürk as if he were pointing toward Anatolia, as a "messiah." conceived it. With this statue, President Mustafa Kemal left his mark on the city even before he returned.

Atatürk returned to the imperial capital as a conqueror after bringing it to its knees. From that date on, he stayed in Istanbul frequently, and the city, which had faded during the armistice period, was enlivened by the President's frequent visits, and its star began to shine once again. However, Istanbul would reach its position as the pioneer of social, economic, and cultural life, leaving the capital Ankara behind, during the Democrat Party era. 

The day of the great return was truly a very significant day in the history of Istanbul. Atatürk, who arrived by train as far as the Izmit Station, entered Istanbul from the sea on the Ertuğrul Yacht, which remained from the era of Sultan Reşat. Records from that day reflect the happy state of mind of President Gazi Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The city practically blessed its great savior that day. After the great return, Atatürk spent the summer of 1927 in Istanbul working on his Nutuk (Speech). 

From then on, Istanbul was the Istanbul of Kemalist Turkey. The city, where Atatürk came frequently and stayed for long periods, became the center of the Turkish Historical and Language  hosted its congresses. With the Park Hotel receptions attended by Atatürk, the Darülbedayi performances, the concerts by Safiye Ayla and Deniz Kızı Eftelya held at Dolmabahçe, and the films watched at the Alhambra Cinema,   Istanbul had become the city of the leader of the revolution. With the construction of the  Florya Sea Mansion, which began in 1935, Atatürk's devotion to Istanbul was solidified.

Atatürk preferred to host King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, Shah Reza of Iran, King Alexander of Yugoslavia, and Crown Prince Gustav Adolf of Sweden in  Istanbul. When he arrived, he would stay in the presidential suite at Dolmabahçe, and as far as the Bosphorus  making sudden trips and mingling  with the public. President Atatürk's final visit to Istanbul while ill took place on May 27, 1938. 

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TAKSIM REPUBLIC MONUMENT 

One of the significant events of Istanbul during the Atatürk era was undoubtedly the erection of the Taksim Republic Monument. The work of Italian sculptor Pietro Canonicais a symbol of the Anatolian Revolution's undeniable mark on the imperial capital.

Today, the actions of counter-revolutionary circles aimed at diminishing the historical significance of Taksim Square and the Republic Monument are rooted in the fact that the square is a symbol of the Atatürk reforms. The Taksim Republic Monument is a work that took concrete form within the framework of Atatürk's own suggestions. It is a symbol of the Atatürk reforms.  With the messages it conveys on its four facades, the monument reflects both the National War of Independence and the Turkish Revolution.

In the early republican period, the Gazi Mustafa Kemal statue at Sarayburnu and the Taksim Republic Monument took their places  in the city's history of monumental spaces as symbols of the Turkish  war of independence and the republican revolution. 

MAYORS AND THEIR SERVICES DURING THE ATATÜRK ERA  SERVICES 

During the Atatürk era, Istanbul was a city roughly ten times the size of the capital, Ankara. The governor-mayors who served until 1938 attempted to resolve municipal issues that had accumulated since the armistice with the limited resources of the young republic. During Atatürk's lifetime, Istanbul did not witness radical urban development projects,  though steps were taken in that direction. This is the reason for his invitation by Atatürk himself for Prost's urban development plan. The most significant achievement during this period was the nationalization of municipal services, which had been held by foreigners through concession contracts, and their integration into the municipality. These include electricity, water, coal gas, tramway, and tunnel operations.

For instance, Ali Haydar Bey put the Sütlüce Slaughterhouse into service and worked to make the fire department effective. The city's second mayor, former Bursa deputy Operatör Emin Bey, was occupied with issues such as bringing water from Kayışdağı to the Anatolian side, sewage systems, and abandoned cemeteries. 

The person who served the longest in the city's administration during the Atatürk era was Muhittin Üstündağ. Üstündağ, who remained in office between 1928 and 1938, in accordance with the Law on the General Administration of Provinces, led the efforts for the revitalization of primary schools under provincial administration, the construction of the Atatürk Bridge, and the establishment of the Istanbul City Theatres.

When Atatürk came to Istanbul, he watched plays at the Darülbedayi (City Theater) under the direction of Muhsin Ertuğrul, carefully observed the city's place in Turkish cultural life, and contributed to its development and enrichment.  

Shortly after the Republican administration took over Istanbul, it began publishing a municipal magazine in 1924. The name of the magazine was “The Republic of Turkey Istanbul Municipality Journal”.

The journal followed and published Atatürk's visits to the city and his activities during his stays extremely closely. By publishing supplements and posters of President Gazi Mustafa Kemal, it attempted to emphasize in a somewhat exaggerated  manner  that  the former capital was a loyal province of the republic.